Quattrocento y Cinquecento

		Quattrocento	Cinquecento
Architecture	Characteristics	classical elements: semicircular arches and classical colums Buildings were smaller and not as tall as gothic constructions. Ornametion simple and austere.	classical elements: semicircular arches and classical colums Buildings were smaller and not as tall as gothic constructions. Ornametion simple and austere.
	Artists and work	Autors:Brunescelli Works:Cathedral of Florence, the facade of the Pitti Palace and the churches of San Lorenzo and Santo Spirito.	Autors: Michelangelo, Maderno Works: Saint Peter's Basilica.
Painting	Characteristics	Colour, composition, perspective	perspective, proprtions, beauty
	Artists and work	Masaccio, Piero della, Franscesca	Leonardo Da vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Titian
Sculture	Characteristics	Proportions and anatomical studies. Nudes. Portrait sculptures or busts. Equestrian statues	Proportions and anatomical studies. Nudes. Portrait sculptures or busts. Equestrian statues
	Artists and work	Donatello	Michelangelo

Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was an Italian polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, botanist and writer. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance man, a man whose unquenchable curiosity was equaled only by his powers of invention. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote". Marco Rosci points out, however, that while there is much speculation about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.

Within Leonardo's own lifetime his fame was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. The interest in Leonardo has never slackened. The crowds still queue to see his most famous artworks, T-shirts bear his most famous drawing and writers, like Vasari, continue to marvel at his genius and speculate about his private life and, particularly, about what one so intelligent actually believed in.

Giorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists, 1568, introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words:

In the normal course of events many men and women are born with remarkable talents; but occasionally, in a way that transcends nature, a single person is marvellously endowed by Heaven with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance that he leaves other men far behind, all his actions seem inspired and indeed everything he does clearly comes from God rather than from human skill. Everyone acknowledged that this was true of Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding physical beauty, who displayed infinite grace in everything that he did and who cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all problems he studied he solved with ease.

—Giorgio Vasari

Vocabulary 5,6

Unit 5

1.Ummayad: it was a family which was assassinated in 750.
2.Caliphate of Damascus: It was the supreme power of Al-Andalus.
3.Caliphate of Cordoba: It was the most brilliant period of Al-Andalus.
4.Al-Andalus: It was a great territory on the Iberian Peninsula.
5.Jews: they played a significant role in the economy.
6.Emirate: a powerful part of al-Andalus
7.Emir: It was the most powerful person of Al-Andalus
8.Walis: they controlled the provinces
9.Visir: they were the ministers
10.Hayib: He was the prime minister
11.Raids:
12.Taifas: they were small kingdoms
13.Parias: the taifas paid that to the Christian kingdoms
14.Almoravids: they went to the Iberian Peninsula to stpo the Christian advance
15.Almohads: they came to power
16.Battle of Navas de Tolosa: the Christian armies defeated the Almohads
17.Nasrid Kingdom: it was the last muslim territory on the Iberian Peninsula
18.Dinar: it was the gold coin which was used by Al-Andalus
19.Dirhem: It was the silver coin which was used by Al-Andalus
20.Arabs: they had the best land, and they were in charge of goverment
21.Berbers: they were more numerous, but had fewer privileges.
22.Muladies: they were former christians who adopted the religion, language and customs of Islam.
23.Mozarabs: they were Christians who continued to practise their religion
24.Medina: it contained the most important buildings
25.Aljama: it was the main mosque
26.Mosque: it was the centre of the city
27.Arrabales: they were workers' districts
28.Alcázar: A fortified area in the highest part of the town. The centre of political life.
29 Souk: Was the market, a place where social and economic life was centred.
30 Alhóndigas: Large warehouses, where the merchants kept their goods.
31 Averroes: Was an Islam philosopher who lived in this period.
32 Maimonides: Was an Islam intellectual,
33 Horseshoe arches: Were the arches used in the Islamic architecture.
34 Plasterwork: Was used to decorate the Islamic buildings.

Unit 6

1.Reconquest: it invilved the occupation of territory fron one valley to another
2.Kingdom of Asturias: It was originated in the mountain ranges of Cantabria
3.Kingdom of León: It was originated in the mountain ranges of Cantabria
4.Aragonese counties: Aragon came under the rule of the kingdom of Navarre
5.Catalan counties: Wilfred the Hairy united them
6.Pelayo: visigoths choosed him as their king
7.Battle of Covadonga: Was produced in 722.The Muslim was defeated by the Christian
8.Alfonso III: He was one king who reigned in the last years of 9th century and early years of the 10th century, when was the greatest expansion just that moment.
9.Fernán González: he divided Castile in a county which was made independent.
10.Spanish March: Lands in the south of Pyrenees between the Muslims and the Carolingian Empire.
11.Carolingian Empire: Empire created by Charlemagne was dissolved in the 9th century. it had the Spanish march in the Pyrenean region.
12.Sancho III the Great: King of Navarre, he became the most powerful Christian king on the Peninsula in the 11th century.
13.Wilfred the Hairy: Was the person who united the Catalan counties, in the 9th century.
14.Beatus: Kind of book that is a famous example of the mozarabic art. It was a manuscript with beautiful paintings
15.Mozarabic art: Was the art witch emerged in the Christian kingdoms in the 10th century.
16.Mudejar art: It Was emerged in the 12th in Sahagún, Leon.
17.Asturian art: Art Developed near of Oviedo between the 8th and 10th centuries.
18.Repopulation: Was produced when the Christians kingdom advance went from the Duero valley until the Granada Kingdom
19 Fueros: Were the privileges given by the kings to the towns.
20 Military orders: Religious order, was a religious army created by the feudal estates to fight to the Muslim advance
21 Mudejars: Where Muslims who remained in Christian territory.
22 Alfonso VI: He conquered Toledo, the Tajo valley and a part of Andalusia.
23 Ferdinand III: Was the person who united Castile and Leon in 1230 and founded the crown of Castile.
24 Cortes: Their function was to approve or reject new taxes.
25 Honourable Council of the Mesta: was creates in 1273 to discuss the problem of the Merino sheep. It was a council of breed sheep and your problems
26 Alfonso I the Battler: Was the first king of Aragon.
27 James I the Conqueror: King of the Crown of Aragon. He took Valencia, Alicante, Murcia and the Balearic islands. 28 Generalitat: An institution which defended the rights of individuals in Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, ensured that the fueros and decisions of their Cortes were respected.

The Mesta

I think it was a good form to gave more ''privileges'' to the sheeps and cattle.

The Mesta was a powerful association of sheep holders in the medievalKingdom of Castile.

The sheep were transhumant, migrating from the pastures of Extremadura and Andalusia to Castile and back according to the season.

The no-mans-land (up to 100km across) between Christian Spain and Moorish Spain was too insecure for arable farming and was only exploited by shepherds. When the land was reconquered by the Spanish, farmers began to settle and disputes with pastoralists were common. The Mesta can be regarded as the first, and most powerful, agricultural union in medieval Europe.

The exportation of merino wool enriched the Mesta members (nobility and church orders) who had acquired ranches during the process ofReconquista.

The kings of Castile conceded many privileges to the Mesta. Even today, herds of sheep may be transported by rail, but the perhaps prehistoric cañadas are legally protected "forever" from occupation and barring.

Some Madrid streets are still part of the cañada system, and there are groups that organize sheep transportation across the modern city as a reminder of ancient rights and cultures.

Marco Polo's journey

The book starts with a preface about his father and uncle traveling to Bolghar where Prince Berke Khan lived. A year later, they went to Ukek and continued to Bukhara. There, an envoy fromLevant invited them to meet Kublai Khan, who had never met Europeans. In 1266, they reached the seat of the Kublai Khan at Dadu, present day Beijing, China. Khan received the brothers with hospitality and asked them many questions regarding the European legal and political system.He also inquired about the Pope and Church in Rome. After the brothers answered the questions he tasked them with delivering a letter to the Pope, requesting 100 Christians acquainted with theSeven Arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, arithmetic, music and astronomy). Kublai Khan requested that an envoy bring him back oil of the lamp in Jerusalem.^[17] The long sede vacantebetween the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268 and the election of his successor delayed the Polos in fulfilling Khan's request. They followed the suggestion of Theobald Visconti, then papal legate for the realm of Egypt, and returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270 to await the nomination of the new Pope, which allowed Marco to see his father for the first time, at the age of fifteen or sixteen.

Polo in costume.

In 1271, Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo embarked on their voyage to fulfill Khan's request. They sailed to Acre, and then rode on camels to the Persian port of Hormuz. They wanted to sail to China, but the ships there were not seaworthy, so they continued overland until reaching Khan's summer palace in Shangdu, near present-dayZhangjiakou. Three and one-half years after leaving Venice, when Marco was about 21 years old, Khan welcomed the Polos into his palace. The exact date of their arrival is unknown, but scholars estimate it to be between 1271 and 1275. On reaching the Mongol court, the Polos presented the sacred oil from Jerusalem and the papal letters to their patron.

Marco knew four languages, and the family had accumulated a great deal of knowledge and experience that was useful to Khan. It is possible that he became a government official; he wrote about many imperial visits to China's southern and eastern provinces, the far south and Burma.

Kublai Khan declined the Polos' requests to leave China. They became worried about returning home safely, believing that if Khan died, his enemies might turn against them because of their close involvement with the ruler. In 1292, Khan's great-nephew, then ruler of Persia, sent representatives to China in search of a potential wife, and they asked the Polos to accompany them, so they were permitted to return to Persia with the wedding party — which left that same year from Zaitun in southern China on a fleet of 14 junks. The party sailed to the port of Singapore, travelled north to Sumatra and around the southern tip of India, eventually crossing the Arabian Sea to Hormuz. The two-years voyage was a perilous one - of the six hundred people (not including the crew) in the convoy only eighteen had survived (including all three Polos). The Polos left the wedding party after reaching Hormuz and travelled overland to the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea, the present day Trabzon.

Henry VIII

What happened during his reign?

Financially, the reign of Henry was a near-disaster. After inheriting a prosperous economy (augmented by seizures of church lands) heavy spending and high taxes damaged the economy.^[9][10]

For example, Henry expanded the Royal Navy from 5 to 53 ships. He loved palaces; he began with a dozen and died with fifty-five, in which he hung 2,000 tapestries.^[11] He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordnance and 6,500 handguns.^[12]

From 1514 to 1529, Thomas Wolsey (1473–1530), a Catholic cardinal, served as lord chancellor and practically controlled domestic and foreign policy for the young king. He negotiated the truce with France that was signaled by the dramatic display of amity on the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520). He switched England back and forth as an ally of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Wolsey centralised the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts, particularly the Star Chamber. His use of forced loans to pay for foreign wars angered the rich, who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. Wolsey disappointed the king when he failed to secure a quick divorce from Queen Katherine. The treasury was empty after years of extravagance; the peers and people were dissatisfied and Henry needed an entirely new approach; Wolsey had to be replaced. After 16 years at the top he lost power in 1529 and in 1530 was arrested on false charges of treason and died in custody. Wolsey's fall was a warning to the Pope and to the clergy of England of what might be expected for failure to comply with the king's wishes. Henry then took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other.

Elton (1962) argues there was a major Tudor revolution in government. While crediting Henry with intelligence and shrewdness, Elton finds that much of the positive action, especially the break with Rome, was the work of Thomas Cromwell and not the king. Elton sees Henry as competent, but too lazy to take direct control of affairs for any extended period; that is, the king was an opportunist who relied on others for most of his ideas and to do most of the work. Henry's marital adventures are part of Elton's chain of evidence; a man who marries six wives, Elton notes, is not someone who fully controls his own fate. Elton shows that Thomas Cromwell had conceived of a commonwealth of England that included popular participation through Parliament and that this was generally expressed in the preambles to legislation. Parliamentary consent did not mean that the king had yielded any of his authority; Henry VIII was a paternalistic ruler who did not hesitate to use his power. Popular "consent" was a means to augment rather than limit royal power.

How many wives did he have?Who were they and what happened to them?

They were six:

1.Catherine of Aragon (divorced)

Catherine of Aragon was a Spanish princess who had previously been married to Henry's brother Prince Arthur. Henry was betrothed to Katherine by his father in 1509 and they had a daughter Mary who later become Queen Mary 1. Catherine had six children but only Mary survived. In 1527 Henry announced his desire to divorce Catherine because she had failed to produce a male heir.

2.Anne Boleyn (executed)

Anne grew up in the family home of Hever Castle in Kent and was a young and beautiful lady-in-waiting to the former queen, Catherine of Aragon. She gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth. When Anne miscarried a second child Henry accused her of witchcraft and had her beheaded on May 19th 1536 at the Tower of London for adultery and incest.

3.Jane Seymour (died)

Jane was born between 1507 and 1509. Henry married his third wife on May 30th, 1536, just eleven days after the execution of Anne. Jane gave birth to a baby boy on 12th October 1537. Henry was said to be devastated when she died 12 days later of blood poisoning. Jane was buried at Windsor Castle, later to be joined by Henry. Her son succeed Henry to become Edward VI.

4.Anne of Cleves (divorced)

Anne was born in 1515 in the small north German state of Cleves (close to the border of Holland). Her parents were John III of Cleves and Marie of Julich. Anne married Henry in 1540 to form a tie between England and the Protestant princes of Germany. After only six months Henry found the political alliance no longer to be to his advantage and so divorced her the same year. She died in 1557.

5.Catherine Howard (executed)

Catherine was born between 1520 and 1525. Henry married Catherine Howard, Anne Boleyn's cousin and maid of honour to Anne of Cleaves. In 1542 Henry once again accused his wife of adultery and had Catherine beheaded at the Tower of London on 13 February 1542.

6.Katherine Parr (outlived Henry)

Katherine Parr, also known as Catherin Parr, was born around 1512. She was Henry VIII’s sixth and final wife. She married Henry VIII on 12 July 1543 at Hampton Court Palace. Katherine outlived Henry - so she is said to have survived.

What happened to his relations with the Pope?

In order for the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from the Pope was normally required to overrule the impediment of affinity because, as told in the book of Leviticus, "If a brother is to marry the wife of a brother they will remain childless". Catherine swore that her marriage to Prince Arthur had not been consummated. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage.

The impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella I, induced Pope Julius II to grant dispensation in the form of a Papal bull. So, 14 months after her young husband's death, Catherine found herself betrothed to his even younger brother, Henry. Yet by 1505, Henry VII lost interest in a Spanish alliance and the younger Henry declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his consent.

What was the name of the church he established in England?

Henry Vlll brought religious upheaval to England. When he became king, most people belonged to the Catholic Church, which was headed by the Pope, in Rome. In 1534, Henry broke away from the Catholic Church and proclaimed himself head of the Church of England. The land and riches of the church became Henry's property and he sold off most of this land to dukes, barons and other noblemen.

The time of the Catholic Monarchs

Diplomatic: It was a system, created by the monarchs to maintain relations with other countries.
Domestic policy: When the war of Succesion ended in Castile, Ferdinand and Isabella set out to bring peace to their kingdoms.
Dynasty:The Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon were united. In 1477, Isabella became the Queen of Castile, and two years later, Ferdinand became king of Aragon.
Marriage alliance: In 1469, Ferdinand, son of the king of Aragon, married Isabella, sister of the king of Castile.

What was the Holy Brotherhood?

It was a judicial police force, to fight against bandits and the abuses of the nobility. They also recognised the justice and stregthened the Royal Council, the highest judicial body.

What was the function of the Tribunal of the Inquisition?

To prosecute heretics. The tribunal was known for its severe sentences and punishments.

Who were the conversors?

They were Jews who converted into Christianism. They were persecuted by the Inquisition.

How did the Catholic Monarchs strenghten their power over the municipalities and the nobility?

They implemented their decisions in various ways:

*They created a bueraucrazy and a profesional and centralised administration, which depended directly on the monarch.

*They built up the army. Troops were paid by the monarch and followed his orders.

*They increased taxes to finance their activities. However, new taxes still needed to approval of Parliment.

*They created a diplomatic system to maintain relations with other countries.

What was the religious policy of the Catolhic Monarchs?

The tribunal of the Inquisition.

Did the Catholic Monarchs do things which benefited their kingdoms?

Yes, they did. They conquered the last Muslim territory in Iberia, the kingdom of Granada, and annexed it to the Crown of Castile.

Bubonic plague

Transmission

The bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (the rat flea). The fleas are often found on rodents, such as rats and mice, and seek out other prey when their rodent hosts die. The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. Once established, bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply. Y. pestis bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them. As the disease progresses, the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic. Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases. The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague. This form of the disease is highly infectious as the bacteria can be transmitted in droplets emitted when coughing or sneezing.
The three forms of the Black Death were transmitted two ways. The septicemic and bubonic plague were transmitted with direct contact with a flea, while the pneumonic plague was transmitted through airborne droplets of saliva coughed up by bubonic or septicemic infected humans.



Where did the plague arrive from?

The deadly disease has claimed nearly 200 million lives (although there is some debate as to whether all of the plagues attributed to it are in fact the same disease). The first recorded epidemic ravaged the Byzantine Empire during the sixth century, and was named the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment.

Effort to stop the Plague

Although the government had medical workers try to prevent the plague, the plague persisted. Most medical workers quit and journeyed away because they feared getting the plague themselves.

"When the government acts to prevent or control a calamity, but the calamity persists, people turn to cures. Many believed that the disease was transmitted upon the air, probably because the smell from the dead and dying was so awful. So, the living turned to scents to ward off the deadly vapors. People burned all manner of incense: juniper, laurel, pine, beech, lemon leaves, rosemary, camphor and sulfur. Others had handkerchiefs dipped in aromatic oils, to cover their faces when going out. Another remedy was the cure of sound. Towns rang church bells to drive the plague away, for the ringing of town bells was done in crises of all kinds. Other towns fired cannons, which was new and made a comfortingly loud ding. There were no ends to talismans, charms, and spells that could be purchased from the local wise woman or apothecary. Many people knew of someone's friend or cousin who had drank elderberry every day, or who had worn a jade necklace, and who had survived the dreaded disease."

Changes in the economic

The economy was probably hit the hardest of all the aspects of Europe. The biggest problem was that valuable artisan skills disappeared when large numbers of the working class died. Therefore,those who had skills became even more valuable than the rich people. The society structure began to change giving formally poor laborers more say. The peasants and artisans demanded higher wages. Serfs seeking liberation from tilling their lord's land were told by decree and statue to return to their master's duties. The poor people saw so much death they wanted to enjoy life. Serfs began to leave their land and not engage in the planting of crops. Unattended crops and stray animals died of starvation because of the lack of care. Several domesticated animals began to roam the forest. Farming communities became rare. The lack of sufficient law enforcement personnel promoted lawlessness. People called "Bechini" pillaged homes, murdering and raping people. They dressed in red robes with red masks and only their eyes showed. The horror of the Black Death had taken on a new victim, the economy.

Effect on the Europe

It affected Europe's population and also its economy. Changes in the size of civilization led to changes in trade, the church, music and art, and many other things.

The Black Death killed off a massive portion of Europe's population. The plague is more effective when it attacks weakened people and Europe at the time was already weakened by exhaustion of the soil due to poor farming, the introduction of more sheep which reduced the land available for corn, and persistent Scottish invasions.